Production and Cost Relationships Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Production and equal Relationships - Essay ExampleProfit is measured as the difference between the revenue generated deducted with the bells incurred. Thus, in straddle to maximize profits, the company could either ensure that it is generating the highest revenue possible by increasing scathe and quantity demanded or minimize the costs that it incurs (Pindyck and Rubinfeld 2005). This paper will focus on the latter. The following chapters will look at the relationship of average cost, fringy cost, and marginal product in the aim of helping a phone line organization attain its goal of profit maximization.In the course of its operation, a business organization incurs various costs in order to ensure that products are designed, manufactured, and distributed to customers (Cepeda 2005). In order to understand average tote up cost, it is best to have a comprehension of what comprises the list cost that a business organization faces. In general, the company is faced with two differe nt costs which make up its total cost namely primed(p) cost and variable cost (Brue and McConnell 2005). Fixed cost, as the name implies is fixed and does not vary with the take aim of payoff. An example of fixed cost is the payment for rent of production plant or retailing store. On the other hand, variable costs are those costs which changes when the quantity of production is changed (Cepeda 2005). Examples of these are the cost of materials and labor which are needed in the production of one unit of a product. The sum of the total fixed cost and the total variable cost is the total cost. Dividing the total cost with the number of quantity produced by the business organization will yield the average total cost (Brue and McConnell 2005).Table 1. Numerical Example for Average Total CostQuantityTotal Fixed CostTotal Variable CostTotal CostAverage Total Cost50$600$1250$1850$37100$600$2500$3100$31150$600$3750$4350$29200$600$5000$5600$28250$600$6250$6850$27.4300$600$7500$8100$27In or der to illustrate fixed cost, it is best to come up with a numerical example. Suppose that a company manufactures figurines and incurs fixed cost as follows in a month $200 for building rent $300 for administrative expense and $100 for utilities. On the hand, it incurs the following variable cost per unit $10 pass material and $15 direct labor. The companys production capacity is 300 units per month. Table 1 shows the companys variable cost and fixed cost at each level of quantity produced. On the other hand, Figure 1 shows the short run average total cost curve. It should be noted that as the quantity produced is increased, ATC declines because of economies of scale, managerial specialization, and use of more efficient labor. Figure 1. ATC Curve in the Short-runHowever, in the long run, ATC curve will begin to inflect because of the diseconomies of scale as production expands further (Pindyck and Rubinfeld 2005). Thus, the long run ATC curve will tend to slope downward at first an d begin to

Good and Bad Discrimination Essay Example for Free

Good and Bad Discrimination EssayWhen the word discrimination is brought up thither is an automatic negative response, due to the f exemplify that closely have this idea that there is only bad discrimination. This comes from people using stumps and being prejudice which creates detrimental situations. However, when a person discriminates it does not mean they are trying to be harmful. Discrimination is when unity distinctively favors or is against certain groups, categories, people, and classes and or involvements that may come from them.Discrimination its self is not bad, still the things that toilet stem from it, are in reality what molds people look at it negatively. People discriminate for many reasons such as religion, race, and even for business and employment. It is one thing to have a preference over something else but to actually deny a person over what race, or religion they are is perverse. Now there are some positives when conclusions are made about things depending on an individuals race or religion. There are people who only loss to date or marry to the aforesaid(prenominal) race, religion, culture, category, class, and things like that.And that does not always mean that they are being racist, stereotypical, prejudice or anything of that nature but that they dewy-eyed are particular. There are even laws that require for workplaces to accommodate for their employees religion just along their religious practices will not bring problems to the employer. However, in the eyeball of the employer they may feel as though if they indeed hire someone with certain beliefs that conflict may arise even if they are unintentional, and a decision maybe made to avoid that. Which is a decent argument but it still is a form of discrimination.One of the biggest reasons people discriminate is that they are actually afraid of what they may or may not understand. The fear of that which is different, that which we do not understand, could have been an adaptive strategy early on in our floor (Why Does Discrimination Occur?. Ehow. com ). Instead of learning how to live with something and become more educated about it they cast it out. Especially if it is something that it out of the norm, or different. Such as homosexuality, a stilt of people are homophobic. They have an unreasonable fear of homosexuals and which they may have their reasons as to why. about people take it past the limits to make people are attracted to the same sex feel different, unaccepted, or unwanted all because they are ignorant of that culture. They have no idea what it is like and quite of trying to comprehend, they use negativity. Now there is cypher wrong with not being gay, and disagreeing with it but an opinion does not have to be expressed in a way that may be harmful. Just because a person is not apart of a certain group does not excuse the act of disrespecting another group or category.A lot of individuals will argue that it is simply wrong, and that it should not be permitted due to religious reasoning. Yes, that does make a lot of since, but I am very sure that many people do things that go against their religion all the time, they just happen to be discrete. Some people are afraid or have been brought up to not over step the boundaries so when others do not abide by the same rules they are automatically looked down upon. Society assigns everyone a certain social identity.Which ever category a person is placed they tend to accept others who are from the same group as they are. Prejudice is derived from our tendency to divide world into us and them( Musa, Prejudice Discrimination and Stereotype). This causes great division between people which is one of the reasons why a lot of people categorize other individuals. Being that prejudice, discrimination, and stereotype are in society there are social aspects and effects. mental picture to derogatory ethnic labels can elicit conformity pressures with people wanting to fit-in ( Musa, Prejudice Discrimination and Stereotype). Generally people fear to be outcast so they go with the crowd.Afraid that if they favor not to agree then they might become socially unexpected. People can reduce their reliance on stereotypes by consciously saying no to association between stereotypes and specific social groups ( Musa, Prejudice Discrimination and Stereotype). It would make a lot of since for people to simply not discriminate sadly that simply will not happen. Either way it may go it is up to the person on what they will choose to do, but social impact has a lot to do with the decisions people make. Social influence plays a role in both maintenance and reduction discrimination, prejudice, and stereotypes. endorse suggesting that members of their group hold less prejudiced deals are out of line with most people of their group, they may change their views. ( Musa, Prejudice Discrimination and Stereotype). It may be conceived that because someone is guilty of discri mination that she is mean, angry and hateful, which very well may be the case. However, when we understand that within us all lies some form of discrimination, whether unresisting or aggressive, it should once again lead us to the conclusion that, of course, it is very easy to discriminate. (Why Is It So Easy To Discriminate? , eHow. com).Every person has their preferences, how they choose to go about them is completely their discretion. There are those who are prejudice, stereotypical, and who discriminate negatively acknowledge it and own up to it. Each and every one of us stereotype and have a prejudice of something. Every single one of us. I stereotype fat people. I make fun of them, I call them lazy. Is it ripe(p)? No. Should people suffering from obesity be kept from living their lives because of my prejudice and stereotypes of them?Absolutely not. (Kriss 2010). Those who do discriminate have a point of view and some respectively explain them. Kriss discriminates against fa t people, does she have that right? Yes, she knows that she should not do it, but she still stands by her opinion no matter what anyone else thinks. Everyone discriminates to a center extent because everyone has their own opinions, and make their own decision with different dependents. Yet and still there things that are wrong which happen to be connected to discriminating and even misconceptions.The way a person behaves is by far their own choice. People are raised differently, have different life experiences, and choose to surround themselves with certain crowds that may differ from others. There are exceptions and there are non exceptions, but being close minded will bring nothing but ignorance. There will always be discrimination because everyone will always have a preference. and there is really nothing that can be done about it. Also prejudice and stereotypes that comes with life. Everything has a positive and a negative.

The Crucible consider how Miller uses Character Essay Example for Free

The Crucible consider how milling machine uses Character EssayThe tension is released and this is the plosive speech sound where John shows he is willing to blacken his name and destroy his reputation to prove that Abigail and the girls were every last(predicate)(a) lying. John is clearly broken by his words and realises in full the extent of what he has done and how damaging they ar. This builds up more tension and suspense in the audience as to whether John will admit his adultery to the motor inn. In the proper . . . see it now John explains his and Abbys affair to Danforth, Danforth receives the story in horror, as he cannot take in all the new issues and starts to imagine that the girls were all lying.Abigail cant believe that she is so close to being found out so angrily lashes out at Danforth who then decides to bring Elizabeth into the mash to back up what John had said, she is an honest woman so why would she lie this would prove if the girls were lying or no t. The tension mounts highly as the motor hotel proceeds and Elizabeth enters. Danforth gives Elizabeth orders not to look at Abigail or Proctor just him and questions her about Abigail, the suspense is unbearable by the time Elizabeth Is asked the question, Is your husband a lecher? a brief silence is held and then she answers, No sir.Danforth then tells Elizabeth to be taken away again and John calls out to her to tell her that he had already admitted to it. Hale tries desperately to explain why Elizabeth said that her husband didnt commit adultery but it does no good and before he can destination justifying Elizabeths actions Abigail falls again into a little scene where bloody shames spirit is attacking her and the girls. Mary screams at Abby to stop but it does not work, Danforth asks why the girls are repeat everything she says but Mary is so overwhelmed by it all that she feels powerless against them.The brief silence is a important aspect of this episode as it builts up outstanding tension and leaves the audience in a lot of suspense not knowing what Elizabeth will do, lie for her husband or not. In the do Mary runs away to the sea, which is symbolic of washing away your sins, John calls out to her today to say that god damns all liars but in the play they all retard in the courtroom. John reaches out to Mary and she backs away from him and screams, Dont touch me-dont touch me same(p) he is the rub or evil. This takes Proctor by surprise as Mary carries on, youre the devils man Parris and the girls start screaming, Praise God over and over again and mass furiousness takes over them. This whole episode is creating more and more tension in the audience as it is very dramatic. Hysteria is a key dramatic device used in The Crucible Mary tells them all of how John made her write in the devils book and that she must help him overthrow the court. She looks at John with disgust and declares her love of God. John then stands in the middle of the cour troom or sea in front of everyone and screams, God is dead This silences everyone for a moment including the audience as the tension that has mounted passim the whole scene has been added to until breaking point. The silence is kept until Parris screams, hear it, hear it Proctor insanely laughs at the comment and declares all his feelings about the whole trials. He has no respect anymore for the church and trials and shows it when he screams, You are pulling down Heaven and raising up a whore here, Proctor is cohesive up for his wife saying that by believing Abigail the court will be raising up a whore, and personifys his wife as heaven satin that you are pulling down heaven.Proctor goes on to say its a whores vengenance This quotation is taken from Act III, when Proctor finally breaks down and confesses his affair with Abigail, after trying, in vain, to expose her as a fraud without revealing their liaison. Proctor knows from the beginning that the witch trials constitute noth ing more than a whores vengeance Abigails revenge on him for ending their affair but he shies away from making that knowledge public because it would lead to his disgrace.This scene, in the Salem courtroom, marks the climax of the play, in which Proctors touch on for justice outstrips his concern for his reputation. This re-prioritization of values enables him to do what is necessary. But he finds, to his horror that his actions come too late instead of Abigail and the witch trials being exposed as a sham, Proctor is called a liar and then accused of witchcraft by the court. His attempt at honesty backfires and destroys him.This more or less ends the scene, pitch into the next scene tension and suspense and worries in the audiences mind about Johns mind. I denounce . . . this court At the end Hale quits the court as he has lost all faith in it. Miller wrote this play for two main reasons one was to show how hysteria takes over mint and how different people react to situations po sed to them, Scene 3 is the scene where all the hysteria takes place, it bears a lot of resemblance to events of today and throughout the foregone 100 years.The first main events are the world wars where a hysteria swept through young men and women to sign up for the services or to help out with the war effort that was hysteria that was used for good but there have been incidents especially in the 1980s with the football riots where hysteria did a lot of damage and cost peoples lives. The play would bear quite a lot of relevance to todays audience especially now as war is pending and people will be feeling a certain hysteria.At the anti-war protests hysteria will have been felt amongst the people building them up to a state of dislike for the politicians involved and the people for war. Hysteria also brings people to form small minded, bigoted opinions of the things they are against like in the cases of Danforth, Parris and Putnam. The spot reason why Miller wrote this play was b ecause of the McCarthy trials were taking place at the time. These were trials that took place in the early 1950s after World War both and anyone with leftwing sympathies should be investigated and make themselves known at persecuting public hearings.People were encouraged to inform on those they suspected which may be where Miller got the idea of Abigail from as he had seen what rumours and gossip could do as he was one of the accused in the McCarthy trials. Miller chose the Salem Witch trials to put his play into the context of because like the McCarthy it was a true event that happened in American history. In Salem, Massachusetts in the 17th century the in habitants very much believed in the devil and knew of his powers so thought that all witchcraft should be hunted out.They were puritans, which meant that none of their habits and activities were very strict and no entertainment was permitted. Miller did a lot of seek into the inhabitants of Salem then so many of the character s are based on real people their actions however and words were not spoken as Miller made the people his own in the play. Miller writes Act 3 very cleverly so that the audience know information that the judges do not, this is a way of making the tension and intrigue in the crowd rise.This form of audience participation is used often by great play writers such as Shakespeare even though their styles are completely different it still has the same effect of dramatic tension and makes their plays interesting and exciting for all the members of the audience. 1 Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Arthur Miller section. Download this essay Print Save Not the one? Search for

Diverse Racial Experience Essay Example for Free

Diverse Racial Experience EssayThe chapter by Ruth Frankenberg entitled, Introduction Points of Origin, Points of Departure, argues that the way one is perceived in society drastically changes their experience and advantage over others. thitherfore, purity women are often distinguished by their discolorness which gives them a more diverse racial experience (Frankenberg, 1993, pp. 1). With being white comes various additional components that set it apart from the other operated women of the world. Moreover, being a white woman automatically links them to a more favourable attitude of superiority in the way that they are often identified. This means that they get certain benefits by being white, as colonialism positioned them to beget a large portion of control and authority over others. This provides them with the advantage to define the public and its individual beings the way they conceive or want it to be. Moreover, they overtake their whiteness as a normative position i n society that is invisible. Frankenbergs goal is to make whiteness visible so that a white person can identify that they have an advantage over a person of food coloring by virtue of their skin. She also takes into consideration the intersectionality of rank, culture, ethnicity, gender, and sexuality in a white racialized body (Frankenberg, 1993, pp. 1).Colonization is an important factor to Frankenberg because of how it uncovers the concept of whiteness and how it subsequently became associated to a position of authority and power. In the article The take of Pamela George, the author observes that history of colonial violence permitted white men to annex land that did non belong to them and treat it as though they were entitled to it (Razack, 2004 ,pp.127). This cognition has perpetuated the control and authority of white passel throughout history.A critique in the second wave of feminism made white feminists reconsider what and for whom they were advocating. The proceeding of feminism was envisioned to include all women but it only targeted one specific group of white middle class women. This occurred because the women could only see thither suffering from their particular standpoint. This is seen in the article The Problem That Has No Name by Betty Friedan since she assumes that all women are homogeneous and all have the same lived experiences. She does non consider race, class, and sexuality as a factor in feminism (1997).White women mostly consider their whiteness as undetectable and thus non subject to racial discrimination (Frankenberg, 1993, pp. 3). These white feminists in the second wave were unintentionally being racist towards other women this made them unsure about how to precede and dissipate this issue (Frankenberg, 1993, pp. 4). Frankenberg educated herself about racism by positioning herself to learn from the standpoint of women of colour. Enakshi Dua stated in her article that, in order to understand how race and gender are interc onnected one has to listen to the lived experiences of women of colour (2005, pp. 64). Frankenberg followed this method formulating questions that she wanted to investigate to find out how racism affects a white womens life and how society propagates racism through societal means. After answering these questions Frankenberg proceeded to figure out how white women can fight against racism.Most white women believe that their race is invisible and do not realize that it gives them a distinct experience in the world. This is because the dominant class structures society and thus normalizes whiteness. White women and women of colour have distinct experiences that are subject to how they experience racism. Whiteness is socially constructed and it does affect a white womens life. However, white women usually tended to regard racism as something that has no effect on them and that women of colour only have to live through (Frankenberg, 1993, pp. 6). This belief does not put the onus on the white mountain and it does not identify the perpetrator of the subjection. Racism does not just happen, it is constructed (Tim Wise 2005). Therefore, it impacts the lives of white women which makes race and gender intersectional for all women not just women of colour.There is a denial in the observations that there is one specific dominating male gender. There is also an abundance of only white womens experiences by this masculine hegemon. After women realise that the world view did not only have to be seen on a male standpoint the world started to switch views (Frankenberg, 1993, pp. 8). Women of colour now want to focus on a standpoint from a radicalized point of view in order to stop racism. Moreover, since white muckle are the oppressors they cannot see how their situation is reinforcing racism.People of colour are the oppressed and know exactly how they are under immunityd. Subsequently, women of colour were the first to see how gender, race and class forms a persons exper ience in life (Frankenberg, 1993, pp. 8). White women did not see their race as something that was constructed. They did not see themselves as racialized because they were coming from a position of privilege. This position for a white person was normalized throughout American history. Therefore, in order to deconstruct race white women have to admit it is something that affects them (Frankenberg, 1993, pp. 11).Race is in a fluid motion and changes constantly with society because it is an economic and political construct. Historically, the white dominance was vindicated because of false biological account that white stack were superior (Frankenberg, 1993, pp. 13). This biology justified colonization as well as the enslavement of battalion of colour that soon followed. The justification shifted to culture as the causal agency that made people inferior and if they integrated with American culture they would achieve success on merit like white people.However, this belief kept blaming people of colour for their position in society.People of colour were first seen as different from white people, then there was an embrace of colour blindness, and finally people realized that they needed to be able to see the differences in society so they can explain them. This last movements purpose was to make people aware of race this was led by the people of colour themselves. They did not want to be invisible because there situation was not improving because people were ignoring the underlying problem.The racialization of people of colour and white people was constructed with colonization. The European culture was embedded into the way the United States constructed its country. This constructed whiteness as belonging and being a person of colour as an outsider (Dua 2005, pp. 60). The dominant western culture which was white- positioned itself to dominant over the other races. This created the standard citizen that belonged and made people of colour not included in the so call ed superior western culture.Frankenbergs argument illuminates how the dominant class rationalized whiteness as not being racialized. Colonization make the dominant race and reproduced it through society. By normalizing whiteness the white people did not need to consider how it benefited them and subsequently how it negatively affected people of colour. By naming whiteness, Frankenberg will be able to pinpoint how that perception can change so that people can be equal even with there differences. In conclusion, by admitting that white people are racialized will assist anti-racist feminists in their mission to stop the racialization of all people. This would stop white people from believe that they are the only ones that belong in North America and eventually create a system based on meritocracy rather then privilege by virtue of a persons skin.

Arguments On Gods Existence Philosophy Essay

Arguments On divinity fudges Existence Philosophy EssayDoes divinity really exist? This is perhaps one of the most sought answer that has divided humanity into two discrete ideologies theism and atheism. To subscribe to either of the two doctrines, one would number 1 need to regard who or what is idol? The most conventional definition of deity that cut across most religions is God is the creator of the reality and everything on it. One would so argue that for God to do all this He must non only be self existent, omniscience, omnipotent further also the Highest Form of Being. This statement and believe has by and large provoked deep rooted enmity between atheists and theists. While one can sometimes feel obliged to controversy towards Atheism based on the arguments extended by atheists the strongest conviction of existence of God is perhaps realized through theists support for existence of God as their arguments are satisfactory as opposed to atheists that are more often than not left hanging. Theism is the most popular doctrine in the world nowadays because one is easily convinced by arguments put forward to support Gods existence. These arguments are multi faceted spanning from various dimensions history, science, and philosophy.Historical arguments emanate from a religious posture most notably Christianity. Stories from the Bible both Old and New Testament talk of the existence of God as the creator of the population and everything in it. God existence is mentioned in the Bible in more than one occasion. The scriptures talk of God who created the heavens and earth in six days. By faith believers are urged to believe in his existence And without faith it is impossible to please God, because anyone who comes to Him must believe that He exists and that He rewards those who earnestly seek Him (Hebrews 116). Every man-to-man who has this religious affiliation or believe accepts God existence and hand in natures creation. From a religious perspecti ve one can therefore derive natures beautiful creation. In addition, believe in existence of God or a Superior Being transcends diverse societal cultures, civilisations and even continents. Surely this does not fit the description of a mere coincidence but rather an unknown force (God) causing this belief.Critical thinking be it evaluation of logic or deductive reasoning put forward as philosophical arguments further justifies the existence of God. Three main philosophical arguments explains the existence of God anthological, first cause, and argument from design.Simple reasoning clearly shows that there is a God. Trying to argue otherwise defiles logic for one cannot even explain where the intelligence to hesitancy His existence comes from. If one really knows what or who God is then arguing that He does not exist is just as vague as its illogical.The universe must have come into existence at one point in time. However, nothing ever creates itself in light of this it must have b een created by someone or something that is inconceivable and that was there from the beginning (God). No matter how we may want to deny Gods existence we cant explain creation of the universe from a mere explosion, who and what caused the explosion? What was exploded and who created it? Unless we embrace the fact that another supernatural forces really exists, none other than GodThe world perfectly supports supporting things, the sun and other planets arrangement in space can only be described as artistic. If anything were to change like maybe the sun moves imminent to the earth all living things would die the reverse is also true. Can a Big Bang cause such perfect dispersal? why is everything still in precise locations after millions of years? Its definitely because there is a god who designed this universe to support life, periodThe existence of God can also be explained through scientific experiments of living organisms properties that portray high level structuring of DNA. Wh ile living cell denotes unique arrangement that is really instructional like binary codes that run a computer programme, scientists have failed to explain this existence of such a pattern without programming, it therefore goes without saying God must have made it that to guides organisms activities. In addition the complexity of a human brain cannot be fully described by evolution theories in place, only God is capable of making a human being a very bright creature.Existence of God is not only pragmatic but theoretical as well. As one examines nature, Gods presence is manifested in many forms ranging from perfectly arranged planets and sun to complex minute cells with unique coordinate DNA that guides organisms activities. Scholars more importantly scientists have failed to provide a satisfactory explanation of these phenomenas thus rationalizing the existence of God who makes all these possible. Critical thinking and deductive reasoning regarding the coming of existence of the u niverse has proofed beyond any reasonable doubt that the universe did not come into existence by itself but rather by a creator who can only be God. However some arguments put forward to explain Gods existence are irrelevant and at best may just seem as illusions rather than facts. For example arguing that everything that exist has a cause is logical but however stating that God is self existent along the same line of thought undermines the fact that the statement is trying to put across, one may wonder if God is complex and is inconceivable, why cant the universe being a complex phenomena be self existent too?

Efficacy of Oral Exfoliative Cytology in Diabetes Mellitus

Efficacy of Oral Exfoliative Cytology in Diabetes MellitusEFFICACY OF ORAL EXFOLIATIVE CYTOLOGY IN DIABETES MELLITUS PATIENTS-A LIGHT MICROSCOPIC CONFOCAL MICROSCOPIC STUDYAbstract entranceway Diabetes Mellitus has become a spherical problem. By supervise the health status of these individuals, diabetic complications leading to morbidity can be prevented.Aim We aimed to analyze alterations in the morphology and cytomorphometry of buccal epithelial cadres of showcase 2 Diabetes Mellitus patients victimization oral exam exfoliative cytology technique and determine its importance in public health screening, diagnosis and monitoring of diabetes mellitus.Material Methods The study was carried come come in of the closet in 100 Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus patients and 30 healthy individuals. Smears were taken from the unspoilt buccal mucosa and dye by the Papanicolaou technique. Staining with Acridine orange was carried out to view qualitative metamorphoses with confocal laser s canning microscope (LSM-510 Meta).The cytomorphometry was evaluated using IMAGE PRO PLUS 5.5 software with Evolution L.C camera. All findings were statistically analyzed.Results The results showed that with increase in fasting plasma glucose levels, there is significant increase in thermonuclear region, decrease in cytoplasmatic area, and increase in nuclear cytoplasmic ratio (PConclusion In the inaugurate study, we found significant alterations in the cytomorphometry and cytomorphology of buccal epithelial booths of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus patients. This study supports and extends the view that these cellular changes can alert the clinician to the possibility of diabetes and aid in monitoring of diabetes throughout the lifetime of the patient.Keywords Confocal laser scanning microscope Cytomorphometry Diabetes mellitus Oral exfoliative cytology.IntroductionDiabetes mellitus (DM) is not a ace disease entity but rather a theme of metabolic disorders sharing the common underlyi ng feature of hyperglycemia. Hyperglycemia results from defects in insulin secretion, insulin action or both. The continuing hyperglycemia and resultant metabolic deregulation of carbohydrate, fat and protein may be associated with secondary damage in multiple organ systems, especially the kidneys, eyes, nerves and pitch vessels.1Recent estimates indicate that the number of people with DM in 2010 is 285 million and is anticipate to be 438 million in 2030. The global prevalence rate is 6.6% in 2010 and is expected to rise to 7.8% in 2030.2India leads the world with largest number of diabetic subjects earning the dubious distinction of being termed the diabetes capital of the world. According to the Diabetes Atlas 2009 published by the transnational Diabetes Federation, the total number of people with diabetes in India is 50.8 million and is expected to rise to 87 million in 2030.3 It can no longer be considered a disease of affluent nation alone, it has become a global problem, a major epidemic of the twentieth century, and one which shows no sign of abating. 3DM is the leading establish of end-stage renal disease, adult-onset blindness and traumatic lower extremity amputations. The prevalence of DM is increasing sharply in the developing world as more people adopt a sedentary lifestyle, with India and China being the largest contributors to the worlds diabetic load.2Oral Exfoliative cytology is a relatively simple and non-invasive clinical technique which has the potential to be developed as a routine investigation for screening of DM. It can be practised chair-side during routine dental examination.4The motley alterations in the cytomorphology of the oral mucosa in diabetes and characterization of these changes give clinicians a more accurate image of what really happens during diabetes. So in our study, the cytomorphometric and cytomorphologic changes were compared according to the antithetical glucose levels of diabetes. In addition to light microsc ope, we used confocal laser scanning microscope, to ascertain the various cytomorphologic changes seen under light microscope. It is possible that the degree of cellular change depends on the progression of diabetes. Hence the present study was undertaken as this research area has received little attention to date.Materials MethodsSelection of subjects The study was carried out in Type 2 DM patients attending the diabetic outpatient department of world-wide Medicine of Sri Ramachandra University, Chennai, India. These patients were under regular monitoring of blood sugar levels and subsequent treatment. The experimental group included 100 Type 2 DM patients and the retain group consisted of 30 healthy individuals free of all systemic diseases with clinically normal oral mucosa. Study groups The entire study sample was grouped for statistical analysis, based on the recent Fasting Plasma Glucose (FPG) levels as follows Group I FPG 110-150mg/dl Group II FPG 150-200mg/dl Group III FPG 200mg/dl Control FPGExclusion criteria Individuals with habit of tobacco use in any form, habitual alcohol intake, any other systemic illness, clinically evident nutritional deficiencies like anemia, presence of oral sepsis were excluded from the study. After selection of the patient, informed consent was obtained and the procedure was carried out. In addition, the biochemical hematological measurements were carried out to exclude anemia other systemic disease.Smear collection and preparation Patients were asked to rinse their mouth to remove any debris. Following this, with a gentle scraping motion, cells were scraped from clinically normal appearing right buccal mucosa. The scrapings were then evenly smeared onto the glass slide and immersed in 95% isopropyl alcohol in a coplin jar, for half an hour.Staining technique Smears from all the samples were stained by the Papanicolaou technique (PAP).For few samples two smears were taken from the same site, one stained using PAP a nd other using Acridine orange(AO), a fluorescent dye, to view with confocal laser scanning microscope. In cases with very high plasma glucose levels smear was stained with day-by-day Acid Schiff (PAS) technique to assess presence of candida.Cytomorphometric assessment The cytomorphometric analysis was done using IMAGE PRO PLUS 5.5 software with Evolution L.C camera. In apiece of the PAP stained slide, ten fields were chosen by systematic sampling in a step wise manner, moving from left to right and then down and across in order to avoid measuring the same cells again. Cells with clearly defined cellular outlines were only chosen those that were clumped, overlapped or folded were excluded for analysis. The cells were intercommunicate on to the monitor via the camera at 40x magnification and images were captured. In the software main menu, the function Measurement mode was selected and the icon specifying polygon was enabled to analyze the area of interest. The nuclear area (NA) and cytoplasmic area (CA) were obtained by drawing around the nuclear and cell boundaries using the cursor. The areas were recorded in square microns. The nuclear cytoplasmic ratio (N/C) was calculated for all the cells. The various parameters calculated were by the Image analysis software thereby reducing the subjective error.Cytomorphologic assessment The PAP PAS stained slides were viewed under light microscope whereas the AO stained slides were viewed under confocal laser scanning microscope (LSM-510 meta).Morphologic assessment included inflammatory component, cell decadence, micronuclei, binucleation, intracytoplasmic inclusion, candida, keratinization, intracytoplasmic microorganisms any other changes.ResultsOn comparison of the cytomorphometry surrounded by the various study groups, the results showed a significant increase in the NA N/C ratio (pDiscussionDM has become a global problem. It is not a disease but a metabolic disorder. Early detection and subsequent monitor ing of this disorder will definitely improve the health of individuals suffering from diabetes. By monitoring the health status of the individuals, diabetic complications leading to morbidity can be prevented, thus producing a healthy society.In the present study we aimed to analyze alterations in the morphology and cytomorphometry of buccal mucosal cells of Type 2 diabetics using exfoliative cytology technique and determine its importance in public health screening and monitoring of DM.The study showed a significant steady increase in NA with increase in blood sugar level (Figure1) from control group (Mean NA-51.03m2) to the diabetic Group III (Mean NA-81.21 m2). This finding concurs with other previously reported studies who reported a significant increase in NA in diabetic patients.5-7 However all these studies did not categorize the patients based on the blood glucose levels. Similar studies using cytomorphometry have been done to analyze the effect of alcohol, tobacco, ray on buccal mucosa. 8-12 Nucleus contains the genomic deoxyribonucleic acid, histones and several proteins. The nuclear size can therefore be altered by change in the content of DNA or proteins. There is usually twice as much protein as DNA in a nucleus.13 Hyperglycemia induces a compensatory increase in insulin secretion which in turn causes increase in protein formation. Insulin has several mitogenic functions, including initiation of DNA synthesis in certain cells. These may ac numeration for the increase in NA seen in diabetes patients.14Our study revealed a decrease in CA with increase in blood sugar level i.e.GroupIII mean CA was 2270.63 m 2 and control mean CA was 2771.6 m2 (Figure1). This finding is contradictory to studies by Alberti et al 5 and Shareef et al6 who found that CA did not show any significant loss in diabetics and Hassan et al7 who reported a significant increase in CA. However this finding concurs with Prasad et al15 who reported increase in cell diameter and cy toplasmic diameter with increase in glycemic status. Ogden et al10 have reported a similar reduction in cell diameter in patients with habit of alcoholism. The reduction in CA in our study could be due to the dehydrated condition of the diabetics. enlarged blood glucose causes dehydration, polyuria polydipsia, intracellular extracellular dehydration. Glucose does not diffuse easily through the pores of the cell membrane causing an increase in osmotic pressure. This increase in osmotic pressure in extracellular fluid causes osmotic transfer of water system out of the cells explaining the reduction in CA.16The comparison of N/C ratio between control and experiment groups showed a steady increase in N/C ratio (from Control-0.0188 to Group III-0.0369) with increasing blood glucose levels(Figure1) .This may be due to a real increase in NA and decrease in CA in diabetic patients, rather than just a deviation from normal. This finding concurs with Rivera et al17 and Prasad et al15 who al so reported increase in N/C ratio.In the qualitative changes we found that micronuclei (MN) was present in 44 cases which was statistically significant (p=0.018). MN are known biomarkers of genome damage and has been studied in buccal cell systems. They provide a convenient and reliable index of both chromosome breakage and chromosome loss.MN is found in cells that have completed nuclear voice.MN was judged according to criteria by Tolbert et al. 18 Another biomarker of genome damage is nuclear bud formation which was also visualized but not statistically analyzed.16 The nuclear bud has the same morphology and fleck properties as the nucleus, however, its diameter may range from a half to a quarter of that of the main nucleus. Hyperglycemia results in formation of Advanced Glycation End products (AGE), endothelial nitric oxide synthase uncoupling, activation of protein kinase C activation of polyol pathway. This in turn causes activation of reactive oxygen species which results i n induction of oxidative stress. Oxidative stress is an unbalance between the production of reactive oxygen species and the biological systems ability to readily detoxify the reactive intermediates or to repair the resulting damage. The effects of oxidative stress depend upon the size of these changes, wherein a cell can overcome small perturbations and regain its original state. However, more severe oxidative stress can cause cell death and even moderate oxidation can trigger apoptosis, while more intense stresses may cause necrosis. Oxidative stress has been found to cause genomic damage in DM. 19 This supports the observation of MN in diabetic patients. Few other studies also showed increase in MN in lymph cell cultures of type 2 diabetics.20, 21This is the first reported study in which an attempt has been made to study qualitative changes of buccal smear using confocal microscopy. The use of fluorescence dye (Acridine Orange) and visualization under confocal laser scanning micr oscope enhanced the demonstration of nuclei and micronuclei. They also helped to avoid fake positive results. Statistical analysis revealed that cell degeneration was present in 44 cases out of 100 cases. It was statistically significant (p=0.05) implying that increase in blood glucose level leads to oxidative stress and showed increase in degeneration and necrosis. The various qualitative changes included karyorrhexis, pyknosis, apoptosis chromatin abnormalities. Previous studies by Alberti et al5 Shareef et al6 also demonstrated qualitative changes of karyorrhexis. Another significant qualitative change found was the presence of keratinization. This finding is in accordance with an earlier study by Zimmermann et al22 who stated that endocrine disorders like DM had increased keratinized cell count in the buccal mucosa. The increase in this keratinization may be a compensation for decreased salivary flow.5 Binucleation was present in 45 cases out of 100 but showed no statisticall y significant result. The significance of these binucleate cells is unknown, but they are probably indicative of failed cytokinesis following the last nuclear division in the basal cell layer. Studies by Alberti et al5 and Shareef et al6 also showed similar findings of binucleation. Increased number of polymorphonuclear leukocytes was observed in the experiment group than chronic inflammatory cells. Increase in inflammation could be due to decreased salivary flow found in diabetics owing to hypofunction of the salivary glands. Hassan et al7 in their study found that relative incidence of inflammation was higher in diabetic smears. Figure2 Figure3 shows the various qualitative changes viewed under light microscope and confocal microscope.Conclusion From our study, we could conclude that diabetes produces significant alterations in the cytomorphometry and cytomorphology of buccal epithelial cells. The use of confocal laser scanning microscopy demonstrated qualitative changes with hi gher resolution and clarity and helped in reducing the possibility of recording false positive and/or false negative observations. Clinical significance Exfoliative cytology is helpful in diabetic patients who have aversion and fear to needle pricks as it is painless and can be carried out regularly .The minimal time and ease of the procedure is beneficial in mass screening and public health awareness programme. They also aid in monitoring of diabetes mellitus throughout the lifetime of the patient, thereby decreasing the morbidity and preventing long term complications.AcknowledgementsAuthors would like to thank the Central Research Facility Department of General Medicine of Sri Ramachandra University, Chennai. We would also like to thank the lab assistant Department of Oral pathology and statistician for their valuable help in the study. No conflict of interest. No source of funding.

Sex Education As Intervention Against Teenage Pregnancy Social Work Essay

Sex Education As Intervention Against Teen years Pregnancy Social Work EssayPromotion of versed health, and all(a) Adolescence, the second decade of livelihood, is increasingly recognized as a critical phase in the life course, especially from the health and social perspectives. The roughly challenging aspect of adolescence is intimate and reproductive health, as it is aspect of adolescence is hinge uponual and reproductive health, the atomic number 18a that poses the greatest difficulty in maintaining immatures health and implementing appropriate and hard-hitting preventatives. For a start, on that point is a paucity of education and, if there is information, it is a lot uncoordinated and fragmented and non actually habituateful for policy-making and programme interventions (WHO, 2005) infrastanding human conjure upuality is a prerequisite to the promotion of familiar health, and all over the world sexuality remains one of the some problematic and ego-destructive aspects of person-hood (Wilson and M apprizedrew, S, 2000). Professor Catherine Ingram of the discipline of Nursing at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill has defined sexuality perhaps more succinctly than most authors in this field. She describes sexuality as an important dimension of the human personality and sees it as being inextricably woven into the fabric of human existence (Catherine Ingram, 1990)The belief preponderating in the early actuate of the twentieth century, that sexual knowledge of the intelligent adolescent was best served by one short, sharp blab- in the fifth if the school was enlightened, in the sixth if it was felt to be an unpleasant merely unavoidable duty-was perhaps typical of attitudes to cultivation in some(prenominal) other disciplines. Facts were enough, and sex was mystify over in a way similar to that used when dealing with the maps of the coalfields. The all difference was the special atmosphere which surrounded the short, sh arp tittle-tattle. It must often convey to its victim that these matters were unspeakable and no well-bred pupil would every need or investigate them further. This method had at least(prenominal) one advantage- it did not attract unfavourable critic from parents or reproduction committees large because all concerned were much too embarrassed to mention it.After the setoff World- war, prosaic objectives in sex education become more apparent and by early 1930s s everal of our national agencies with the prevention the prevention of illegitimacy, the spread of acquaintance about contraceptives and marriages guidance had begun. in that location was a small but interesting upsurge of intellectuals who nobly hid their embarrassments they discussed sexual matters with their children and solemnly left the bathroom door unbarred so that nudity could be rationally displayed. There were, however, even in those days, t each(prenominal)ers in schools effectively relieving adolescent anxie ty and ignorance about sex often under the name of human biology, wit equivocally worded syllabuses, and without a word to the head. Such strategies are still in use today.The ironic evidence from research on the effects of fear-arousing information in connection with types of preventive health behaviour is that people carry to reject the information rather than change their behaviour (Radelfinger, 1965 Young, 1967)In 1936, Wilhelm Reich commented that sex education of his time was a naturalize of deception, focusing on biology while concealing excitement arousal, which is what a pubescent individual, is mostly kindle in. Reich added that this emphasis obscures what he acceptd to be a basic psychological principle that all worries and difficulties originate from unsatisfied sexual impulse (Reich W, 1936)The existence of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) has given a new sense of urgency to the topic of sex education. In many Afri preempt nations, where AIDS is at epidemic level, sex education is seen by most scientists as a bouncy public health strategy. Some international organizations much(prenominal)(prenominal) as Planned Parenthood consider that broad sex education has global benefits, such as controlling the risk of overpopulation and the advancement of womens rights.According to the Sexuality Information and Education Council of the United States (SIECUS), 93% of adults they surveyed support sexuality education in high school and 845 support it in junior high school (SIECUS,1984). In fact, 885 of parents of junior high school students and 80% of parents of high students conceive that sex education in school assoils it easier for them to talk to their adolescents about sex. Also, 92% of adolescents report that they want both to talk to their parents about sex and to acquire statewide in-school examination.When sex education is contentiously debated, the chief controversial points are whether covering child sexuality is valuable or detrim ental the use of birth control such as natural rubbers and hormonal contraceptive method and the impact of such use on pregnancy outside marriage, juvenile pregnancy and the transmission of sexually transmitted diseases (STIs.) change magnitude support for abstinence-only sex education by conservative groups has been one of the primary causes of this controversy. Countries with conservative attitudes towards sex education (including the United Kingdom and the United states ) curb a higher incidence of STIs and teenage pregnancy (Monbiot, 2004)The proportion of women aged 20-24, who had a child onwards age 20 is a useful summary indicant that reflects the differences in teenage birth pass judgment by country. This proportion is lowest in Sweden (4%), slightly higher in France (6%), much greater in Canada and not bad(p) Britain (11% and 15%, respectively) and highest in the United States (22%). Differences in the proportion giving birth by age 15 and by age 18 are too much hi gher in the United States than in the other four countries (Jacqueline et al, 2001)Teenage pregnancy is times is a factor of early sexual exposure. Immaturity, incompleteness or risky sexual experience often results in the unplanned pregnancy. In the study carried, between 1980 and 1998, among men and women to determine the age of first sexual experience, women were pitch to be exposed earlier than men (figure 1).Figure 1.Proportion of quiticipants younger than 16 days at first intercourse, by year of first intercourse.Teenage pregnancy in atomic number 63 The incidence of teenage pregnancy across Europe varies considerably. The United Kingdom has the highest rate in Western Europe and is lower only than Bulgaria , Russia , and Ukraine in Europe as a whole. Throughout most of Western Europe, teenage birth rates fell during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s, but in the United Kingdom , rates have remained high-at or above the level of the early 80s.http//www.bmj.com/content/330/7491/590.f ullFigure 2 showing teenage pregnancy in 6 European countries over a 25 year period.The graph shows the trend over a twenty-five year period (1973-1995)There is a sharp decline in the United Kingdom figures and then a near steady value in the late 70s and early 80s, before in stages reaching a crescendo in 1991 and then a sharp drop towards the end of the survey. The Netherland has the least and was fairly constant throughout the study period. Germany , France , Ireland ad Italy had fluctuating values, but generally, there was a decline towards the end of the study.UNITED KINGDOM In England and Wales , sex education is not compulsory in schools as parents can refuse their children take parting the lessons. The curriculum focuses on the reproductive system, foetal development and the physical and emotional changes of adolescence, while information about contraceptive method and safe sex is discretionary and discussion about relationships is often neglected. Britain has one of the hi ghest teenage pregnancy rate s in Europe and sex education is a heated issues I brass and media reports. In 2000 study by the University of Brighton , many 14 to 15 year olds reported disappointment with the content of sex education lessons and felt that confidentiality prevents teenagers from asking teachers about contraception. In a 2008 study conducted by YouGov for channel 4 it was revealed that almost three in ten teenagers say they need more sex and relationships education.In Scotland , the main sex education programme is Healthy respect, which focuses not only on the biological aspects of reproduction but also on relationships and emotions.Education about contraception and sexually transmitted diseases are entangled in the programme as a way of support good sexual health. In response to a refusal bythe catholic school to commit to the programme, however, a separate sex education programme has been developed for use in those schools. Funded by the Scottish Government, the programme Called to Love focuses on encourage children to delay sex until marriage and does not cover contraception and as such is a form ofAbstinence-only sex education.It is important to recognise that for some young women, particularly from certain ethnical or social groups, teenage pregnancy can be a positive life picking. evaluate of teenage pregnancy within marriage are high, for example, in some South Asian ethnic groups in the United Kingdom . However, for many other young women, the costs of teenage pregnancy can be very high, particularly when linked with poverty. These risks include poorer outcomes for the children of teenage mothers as well as for the mothers themselves.http//www.bmj.com/content/330/7491/590.fullFigure 3 showing the rate of teenage pregnancy in 17 European countries.A sex survey by the World Health Organization concerning the habits of European teenagers in 2006 revealed that the birth rate among 15-19-year-olds in the UK was 27.8 births per 1,000 pop ulations. The graph shows, the United States with the highest rate of teenage pregnancy and Switzerland with the least. The United Kingdom has the highest rate in Europe, which is clearly above the average value in EuropeFRANCE In France , sex education has been part of school curricula since 1973. Schools are expected to provide 30 to 40 hours of sexual education and pass out condoms to students in grades eight and nine. In January,2000, the French government launched an information campaign on contraception with television and radio spots and the distribution of five million leaflets on contraception to high school studentsGERMANY In Germany , sex education has been part of school curricula since 1970. Since 1992 sex education is by law a government duty. It normally covers all subjects concerning the growing-up process, body change during puberty, emotions the biological process of reproduction, sexual activity, partnership, homosexuality, discarded pregnancies and complications of abortion, the dangers of sexual violence, child abuse and sex-transmitted diseases, but sometimes also things like sex positions. Most schools offer courses on the comprise usage of contraception.A survey by the World Health Organization concerning the habits of European teenagers in 2006 revealed German teenagers about contraception. The birth rate among under 15- to 19-year-olds was very low- only 11.7 per 1000 population, compared to the UKs 27.8 births per 1,000 population and in first place -Bulgarias 39.0 per 1,000.FINLAND Sexual education is usually incorporated into various obligatory courses, mainly as part of biology lessons (in lower grades) and later in a course related to general health issues. The Population and Family Wel furthere Federation provide all 15-year-olds on introductory sexual package that includes an information brochure, a condom and to be most effective when a multifaceted approach is used, as the problem is devilfold determined and multidimens ional. The interventionscartoon love story should not only focus on sexual factors and related on sequences, rather Interventions that are designed to curtail teen pregnancy appears they should include non sexual factors such as skills training, and personal development as well. Further, stakeholders including pregnant teens, parents, health sector, schools and churches should work together to devise programs that are practical, evidence found, culturally appropriated and acceptable to the target population.Boostma writing on Sex Education Preparing Instead of Prevention, surmise that the teenage pregnancy rates has been (one of) the Netherlands for years now. intercommunicate the question if Netherlands are scarcely sexual active or if the Dutch promote abstinence from sexual intercourse? He asserts that in the Netherlands , there is not one specific governmental programme for teenage sex education or contraception. There is however, a lot of information about sexuality and con traception that is coming from all directions.Boostma believes that the Dutch approach attitude towards sexuality is one of tolerance, open mindedness and pragmatism and that studies from many countries that giving the message to young people not to have sex are having the opposite effects. The same account for countries where the subject sex is more or less a taboo to talk about. The Dutch concluded that many young people will have sex anyway, so they should be prepared for sexuality than to be prevented from it. This preparing attitude is coming from distinct levels of the societyThe government through the National Health insurance pay for the contraception. Parents talk about sexuality and its consequence.The Mass-media (Television, newspaper, magazines, radio) addresses sexuality and sexual health. Schools give sexuality talk/sex education.There many accessible help for sexuality and contraception. These and other factors result in a tolerant and pragmatic attitudetowards sex make information and contraception accessible and explains the low rate teenage abortion or pregnancy.Sexual heath in the Netherlands sum provision instead of prevention. This forwardness means that young people are stimulated to become sexually autonomous and can make their own sensible discussions. Up till now, the Dutch method has proven its effectiveness over and over again.Ian Sutherland, who was director in the Health department of Britain in the early 80s co-authored a leger, Health Education, perspective and Choices which dwells on the several choices available to people and the choices they make based on the information they have. The book analyses the different areas where choice is inevitable and the ideological basis for which certain choices should be made. Various authors contributed various topics on the theme Health education. The book first published in 1979 is invaluable as it coincide with the transition period of equilibrise health needs in Britain . The incr eased rate in teenage pregnancies and the consequence rise in abortion rates. It was also a period Britain was assay to entrap formal curriculum on sex education. In an effort to include as much as possible, the authors referred extensively to a literature which begins with Plato. The authors try to drawthe readers attention to as many authorities as possible, and so made attempt at bringing together inone book the extensive libraries of health, education, and health education.Crosby et al (2008) in a study titled, The Protective Value of Parental Sex Education A clinical-based exploratory study of adolescent females compared the impact of sex education provided by parents to female adolescents against the same education provided by formal positions to female adolescent.They sampled females aged 16-24 years, attending an adolescent medical clinic in urban area of the south were recruited prior to examination. Each patient completed an anonymous self administered questionnaire. D ata from 110 respondents were analysed to compare those who indicating they had learned about each of 4 topics from parents to those not indicating learning about all 4 topics from a parent. The same process was repeated relative to learning about all 4 topics in a formal education setting.The result showed that in controlled, multivariate analyses, adolescent not communicating with parent on all 4 topics were well-nigh 5 times more in all likelihood to report having sex partners in the past 3 months. Further, adolescents were 3.5 times more likely to have low self efficacy for condom use, 2.7 times more likely to ever using alcohol or drugs or sex and about 70% less likely to have ever talked about HIV prevention with a partner before engaging in sex. Differences relative to learning about all 4 topics in formal settings were not found out.Looking at works through recently in the United Kingdom, (SHARE Sexual Health And Relationships Safe, Happy and Responsible) include 8400 pupil s aged 13-15years in 25 secondary schools in east of Scotland (Wight et al,2002) Questionnaires was completed at base line and follow up done 2 years later. The intervention was a new 5-day teacher training programme plus a 20-session pack 10sessions were delivered in the third year (at 13-14 years) of secondary school and 10 in the fourth year (at 14-15years). The primary outcome for the study was use of condoms at first intercourse. Similar proportions of both intervention and control groups used condom at first intercourse with less than 105 of pupils reporting first intercourse without condom. For all other behavioural outcomes (condom use after first intercourse, spontaneous contraceptive use and unplanned pregnancy) there were no differences with the groups. However, as with Martiniuks study in Belize, published in this issue of the international journal of epidemiology, pupils in the intervention group were more knowledgeable than those in the control group.(Martiniuk,2003). The Belize study was well designed in allowing for the clustered nature of samples both when calculating and the sample surface and analyzing the data. Publishing the intra-cluster correlation will be good for planning future research.However, there are a number of weaknesses with the randomized procedures discussed by the authors in their paper. The mental unsoundness between groups in the number of classrooms could have been overcome by a block method rather than the simple coin toss employed here. (Schulz and Grimmes, 2002)There were considerable differences between groups at baseline in terms of gender and sexual experience. These data were not available to the researchers prior to the study starting. It may have been appropriate to allocate classes to intervention and control groups when the results from pre-test questionnaires were available. At this time an alternative randomization procedure such as stratification or minimization may have reduced the chances of imbalance b etween groups in the study (Pocock, 1984)Anna Graham note that the factor with the strongest influence preventing teenage pregnancy is educational opportunity. It is well- educated women who tend to delay childbearing. For women aged 20-24 years the keen-sighteder a woman remains in school the less likely she is to have a child before the age of 20. Adolescents with little schooling are often twice as likely as those with more education to have baby before their twentiethbirthday. For example, 46% of young Columbian women with less than 7 years schooling have their first child by the age of 20, compared with 19% of those with more education. The differentiate is even greater in Egyptian, where 51% of less educated women have their first birth before the age of 20 compared with 9% of better educated women. She noted that the link between lack of education and early childbearing is also strong among adolescents in the US . Some 58% of young American women who receive less than a hi gh school education give birth by their 20thbirthday, compared with 13% of young women who complete at least 12 years of schooling. The report from the Alan Guttmacher Institute, from which these data came, suggested that low level of education is not necessary a direct cause of early child bearing, however, the two characteristic of living in impoverished and rural environments. She further argued that when school is the main source of information about sexual matters, like the cross-sectional surveys in the UK , early and unprotected sexual intercourse is less likely, compared with when other sources such as friends and the media dominate.She surmised that, the greatest impact to be made in reducing unwanted pregnancies and sexually transmitted infections is to increase the time spent in education by young women worldwide. She believes this form of intervention is likely to change the role of women in society empowering them to avoid the adverse consequences of sexual activity.The author in her work tried to justify the need for a comprehensive education over and above the micro aspect of education-sex education. Believing that with increased time spent acquiring education, a women is more likely to avoid the bad aspect of sexual activity. She had looked into certain aspects of form of sex education and did not really weigh each on its own merit. She probably relied on her experience to draw a far reaching conclusion.Boostma writing on Sex Education Preparing Instead of Prevention, surmise that the teenage pregnancy rates has been (one of) the Netherlands for years now. Asking the question if Netherlands are hardly sexual active or if the Dutch promote abstinence from sexual intercourse? He asserts that in the Netherlands , there is not one specific governmental programme for teenage sex education or contraception. There is however, a lot of information about sexuality and contraception that is coming from all directions.He believes that the Dutch approach a ttitude towards sexuality is one of tolerance, open mindedness and pragmatism and that studies from many countries that giving the message to young people not to have sex are having the opposite effects. The same account for countries where the subject sex is more or less a taboo to talk about. The Dutch concluded that many young people will have sex anyway, so they should be prepared for sexuality than to be prevented from it. This preparing attitude is coming from different levels of the society. He noted that the government through the National Health insurance pay for the contraception. Also parents talk about sexuality and its consequence. The Mass-media (Television, newspaper, magazines, radio) addresses sexuality and sexual health. Schools give sexuality talk/sex education.There many accessible services for sexuality and contraception. These and other factors result in a tolerant and pragmatic attitudetowards sex make information and contraception accessible and explain the l ow rate teenage abortion or pregnancy.Sexual heath in the Netherlands means preparation instead of prevention. This preparation means that young people are stimulated to become sexually autonomous and can make their own sensible discussions. Up till now, the Dutch method has proven its effectiveness over and over again.Perspective and choices which dwells on the several choices available to people and the choices they make based on the information they have is important in tackling the issue of teenage pregnancy. The different areas where choice is inevitable and the ideological basis for which certain choices should be made should essentially be based on informed choices.Health authorities have proposed several methods of addressing Health education. This was very significant, particularly during the transition period of balancing health needs in Britain . The increased rate in teenage pregnancies and the consequence rise in abortion rates is significant, particularly going back to the period Britain was trying to establish formal curriculum on sex education.Abortion seems to be on the increase in the United Kingdom , according to the office of national statistics in the United Kingdom , the proportion of humors terminated by abortion among under 20-year-olds increased slightly from 36 per cent in 1990 to 39 per cent in 2000. Over half (51 per cent) of all conceptions among under 16-year-olds resulted in a termination in 1990 and this increased slightly to 54 per cent in 2000. Legal abortion rates were highest in London and the West Midlands in 2000 and 2001. Similarly, the data collected by the agency noted a corresponding decrease in conception rate, it noted that, In 2000, the conception rate among females under 20 years was 63 per 1,000 females aged 15 to 19 years. This marks a decrease in conception rates over the last decade that mirrors a general decrease among females of all ages. The exception however has been among females aged 13 to 15 years. Rate s of conceptions in this group have remained consistent at between 8 to 10 per 1,000 females from 1990 to 2000.A likely consequence of abortion is decreased fertility and sexual infections, the agency equally noted a rise in sexual related infection within this time period, Genital infection with chlamydia trachomatis if untreated, is associated with pelvic insurgent disease (PID) in women and infertility. The diagnostic rate of genital chlamydia infection in females aged under 20 years old has increased since the mid-1990s. In 2001, the highest rates of diagnosed chlamydia seen in GUM clinics, were among 16- to 19-year-olds (1,035 per 100,000 females). Genital warts are the most commonly diagnosed viral STI. In 2001, 29 per cent of females diagnosed with genital warts were under 20 years of age, compared with only 10 per cent of males in the same age group. Rates of diagnosis among females aged 16 to 19 years increased by more than 15 per cent during the last decade and reached 68 0 per 100,000 females in 2001.Intervention in teenage pregnancy, need to among other things focus on improving contraceptive use, and initiate attitudinal changes and life stylelikely to prevent pregnancy and sexual transmission infection transmission. This should involve long-term services and interventions, which are tailored to addressing the major causes of teenage pregnancy. This should be spelt in information, which are clear and unambiguous and may involve ideas which the youths relate with. It should also be home grown, in that it should relate with the culture or practices inherent in the society.This will start with identifying the risk group. There are certain categories among this age, which appear to be vulnerable. Vulnerability may be by choice or imposed cod to social economic reasons or accessibility to health care, such as contraception use. Interpersonal skills development is vital in achieving this objective. Programmes and other educational facilities, which all ow interpersonal development, should be explored, this will allow productive engagement. Clinic service for education and information, will also serve a vital role in checkmating the trend. As teenage will not only benefit, but the society will be better for it as well. Information dispersion is vital and there is the possibility of teenagers accessing this on their own, if encouraged to talk to health personnel or attend clinics for advice and education. Education in this sense should be all encompassing and structured to the need at hand. Constructive engagement and participation of all and sundry are vital.Periodic review of methods is important in our ever changing world. Therefore, interventions should not just be in theory, but clear goals which are practicable should be outlined to follow the strategies mapped out. Outcomes envisaged, need to be weighed in relation to the input.The delicate age, adolescence confers on teenage, makes it imperative, to address peer pressure an d to make leaders of peer groups participatory in addressing the problems identified. All this need be done in an atmosphere of trust and confidentiality. It is often difficult to identify sexually active individuals, therefore, the scope of the intervention need be broad-based to cater for all and sundry. This can be achieved by recruiting experts or people trained in working with youths, who have enough experience to deal with the challenges teenage present.Catherine et al 2003, working on reviews which looked at teenage pregnancy and interventional means of check in the scourge, surmised the intervention on socio-demographics, which addressed the various health, education and psycho-social needs of teenagers and their environment in tackling the problem.They found out that, there is mixed evidence for the effectiveness of school-based and/or teacher-delivered sex education. They are of the opinion that, the best chance of interventions being successful in this setting is when the y are multifactor and address a broad range of issues, including self esteem, vocational development, and access to services.In the area of Clinic/primary care as an interventional means, they equally believe that, there is mixed evidence for the effectiveness of interventions that take place in a clinic/primary care setting alone, and that it will be beat, based on the literature search, that they are linked widely to other federation and school services, and evaluated as part of a broader programme. They are of the view that, confidentiality is of utmost importance considering the age group. They also surmised that in the UK context, particularly on UK-specific services and settings, such as doctors who may be the first to see these individuals.On Education and information dissemination, there is mixed evidence for the effectiveness of educational approaches. It was found out that, the more positive outcomes, have been found for education based approaches which link directly to s ervices offered. This also includes a broad range of skills to help improve confidence and relationships among teenagers Vocational development may also be useful. It is said that, programmes should be long term, sustained across school years, and be in place before teenagers become sexually active.It is also suggested that, there is the need to support young parents to take place their education to enhance educational and employment opportunity for parents, mother/child interaction, and social outcomes for children. Early educational interventions for disadvantaged children can improve long-term. The family is foremost in checking the trend and this is dependent on teenagers getting support from parents and families. Neglect has always been attributed as a cause of teenage pregnancy. This could be deliberate or due to pressure from social responsibilities from parents to support the family, often leading to children not getting enough or desired attention from their parents.They f urther found out that, community interventions should be developed with regard to local needs and existing services. There is some evidence that multi-factor interventions involving a degree of community activity or service may be effective at improving contraceptive use.Onschool-based clinics., it is noted that, although, more research is needed on these as the evidence cover by reviews here was methodologically weak, They may be effective as part of multi-factor programmes, but clinic-based healthcare programmes for teenage mothers and their children can improve their health outcomes, if taken as a priority at all stages.The media and the Internet are often seen as social agents which are often not properly utilised, either as a child educator and form of entertainment, but also as a means of redeeming the problem. The study noted that much work has not been done in the United Kingdom , but again, further work is needed here for the UK . Skills, meant to give self-esteem are vita l.There is further result for approaches that focus on these factors, particularly when they are part of a broad-ranging intervention. Peer education, is also important in addressing the core issues right from the onset.Abstinence, as an interventional means has actually, not been fully found to be effective, as there are little or no evidence for the e